+ Page 1 + ----------------------------------------------------------------- The Public-Access Computer Systems Review Volume 4, Number 6 (1993) ISSN 1048-6542 ----------------------------------------------------------------- To retrieve an article file as an e-mail message, send the GET command given after the article information to LISTSERV@UHUPVM1 (BITNET) or LISTSERV@UHUPVM1.UH.EDU (Internet). To retrieve the article as a file, omit "F=MAIL" from the end of the GET command. CONTENTS PAPERS FROM THE NINTH TEXAS CONFERENCE ON LIBRARY AUTOMATION, HOUSTON, TEXAS, APRIL 2-3, 1993, PART II COMMUNICATIONS Competencies for Electronic Information Services By John Corbin (pp. 5-22) To retrieve this file: GET CORBIN PRV4N6 F=MAIL Electronic information services and the competencies required for providing them are defined. The personal, basic, general, and special competencies that will be needed are described. Both how the competencies are acquired initially and how they will be maintained thereafter (as well as responsibilities for gaining and maintaining competencies) are also discussed. Information Policy for Electronic Information Resources By Mary Lou Goodyear (pp. 23-31) To retrieve this file: GET GOODYEAR PRV4N6 F=MAIL This paper examines three important information policy issues related to electronic information resources: (1) access--the ability to gain access to records held by governments or private companies; (2) privacy--an individual's right to hold information about him/herself secure; and (3) intellectual property--the ownership of information. + Page 2 + COLUMNS Public-Access Provocations: An Informal Column Reality Checks for Catalog Design By Walt Crawford (pp. 32-35) To retrieve this file: GET CRAWFORD PRV4N6 F=MAIL ----------------------------------------------------------------- The Public-Access Computer Systems Review ----------------------------------------------------------------- Editor-in-Chief Charles W. Bailey, Jr. University Libraries University of Houston Houston, TX 77204-2091 (713) 743-9804 LIB3@UHUPVM1 (BITNET) or LIB3@UHUPVM1.UH.EDU (Internet) Associate Editors Columns: Leslie Pearse, OCLC Communications: Dana Rooks, University of Houston Editorial Board Ralph Alberico, University of Texas, Austin George H. Brett II, Clearinghouse for Networked Information Discovery and Retrieval Steve Cisler, Apple Computer, Inc. Walt Crawford, Research Libraries Group Lorcan Dempsey, University of Bath Nancy Evans, Pennsylvania State University, Ogontz Charles Hildreth, READ, Ltd. Ronald Larsen, University of Maryland Clifford Lynch, Division of Library Automation, University of California David R. McDonald, Tufts University R. Bruce Miller, University of California, San Diego Paul Evan Peters, Coalition for Networked Information Mike Ridley, University of Waterloo Peggy Seiden, Skidmore College Peter Stone, University of Sussex John E. Ulmschneider, North Carolina State University + Page 3 + Technical Support Tahereh Jafari, University of Houston Publication Information Published on an irregular basis by the University Libraries, University of Houston. Technical support is provided by the Information Technology Division, University of Houston. Circulation: 7,546 subscribers in 63 countries (PACS-L) and 2,142 subscribers in 51 countries (PACS-P). Back issues are available from LISTSERV@UHUPVM1 (BITNET) or LISTSERV@UHUPVM1.UH.EDU (Internet). To retrieve a cumulative index to the journal, send the following e-mail message to the LISTSERV: GET INDEX PR F=MAIL. The first three volumes of The Public-Access Computer Systems Review are also available in book form from the American Library Association's Library and Information Technology Association (LITA). The price of each volume is $17 for LITA members and $20 for non-LITA members. All three volumes can be ordered as a set for $45 (indicate that you want the PACS Review set, order number 7712-X). To order, contact: ALA Publishing Services, Order Department, 50 East Huron Street, Chicago, IL 60611-2729, (800) 545-2433. + Page 4 + ----------------------------------------------------------------- The Public-Access Computer Systems Review is an electronic journal that is distributed on BITNET, Internet, and other computer networks. There is no subscription fee. To subscribe, send an e-mail message to LISTSERV@UHUPVM1 (BITNET) or LISTSERV@UHUPVM1.UH.EDU (Internet) that says: SUBSCRIBE PACS-P First Name Last Name. PACS-P subscribers also receive three electronic newsletters: Current Cites, LITA Newsletter, and Public-Access Computer Systems News. The Public-Access Computer Systems Review is Copyright (C) 1993 by the University Libraries, University of Houston. All Rights Reserved. Copying is permitted for noncommercial use by academic computer centers, computer conferences, individual scholars, and libraries. Libraries are authorized to add the journal to their collection, in electronic or printed form, at no charge. This message must appear on all copied material. All commercial use requires permission. ----------------------------------------------------------------- + Page 5 + ----------------------------------------------------------------- Corbin, John. "Competencies for Electronic Information Services." The Public-Access Computer Systems Review 4, no. 6 (1993): 5-22. To retrieve this file, send the following e-mail message to LISTSERV@UHUPVM1 or LISTSERV@UHUPVM1.UH.EDU: GET CORBIN PRV4N6 F=MAIL. ----------------------------------------------------------------- Abstract Electronic information services and the competencies required for providing them are defined. The personal, basic, general, and special competencies that will be needed are described. Both how the competencies are acquired initially and how they will be maintained thereafter (as well as responsibilities for gaining and maintaining competencies) are also discussed. 1.0 Introduction There are a number of factors having an impact on today's libraries, one of the most important and pervasive of them being technology. [1] Like it or not, the future of our libraries depends on this technology--it is dictating or influencing how our information is acquired, organized, stored, retrieved, and disseminated; how our services and facilities are designed, organized, staffed, and offered; and how our users seek, receive, and use information. Technology also is altering our philosophy from that of collecting information to providing access to information; it is affecting our policies and procedures; and it is requiring that librarians have skills and knowledge unprecedented in our past. No aspect of our services, facilities, or other resources is or will be unaffected by technology. Librarians are now faced, as never before, with the never- ending struggle to attain and retain the competencies needed to remain productive in their careers, thanks to a great extent to technology. The obsolescence of skills and knowledge is directly related to advances in technology, and those advances are occurring at a mind-boggling rate. This paper is about the specific competencies needed for electronic information services, how the competencies are acquired and maintained, and responsibilities for acquiring and maintaining those competencies. + Page 6 + 2.0 Definition of an Electronic Information Service An electronic information service is any library system whose primary purpose is to provide access to, reference from, or otherwise utilize information from one or more databases stored electronically on online data storage media such as magnetic disk or optical disc. The stored information could be bibliographic or citation records, abstracts, full-text documents, numerical data, image records, sound records, inventory records, personnel records, financial records, or any other type of records that can be stored in digital form. Access to this information is under the control of one or more computers, using nearby or distant microcomputer or other input/output terminals. The information and the computer or computers that control it may be in the library, in a computing center serving the library, or in a nearby or distant organization with which the library has cooperative or contractual agreements. The library may own or control all the information, part of it, or none of it. Although many information seekers may never physically enter the library building, a large number probably will, at least for many years to come, to use its terminals and other facilities and to receive human assistance or companionship. Also, for many years to come, most libraries must cope with information in both electronic and traditional formats. So, until all of a library's information is in electronic form, its electronic information services must retain links to non-electronic information handling systems, particularly when document delivery is involved. The demand for information available only in traditional formats will continue far into the electronic information age, until some unknown point in time, if ever. Common examples of electronic information services providing direct services to library clients include mediated searching of remote databases, end-user searching of remote databases, and end-user searching of local databases, including online public access catalogs, CD-ROM citation databases, and community information files. Examples of other electronic information services providing indirect or internal services include acquiring or creating information in electronic databases, organizing and preserving electronic information, and providing information and services to library management and staff as well as to external governing authorities and agencies. There is a commonality of competencies that are, or will be, required in providing any of these electronic information services. + Page 7 + 3.0 Definition of a Competency The definition of a competency is controversial. In earlier times (a decade or so ago), competence was considered in terms of the personal characteristics one had; competence was judged on the basis of the quality of one's character, virtue, innate abilities, and underlying attributes. Today, however, competence is considered more in terms of skill-oriented behavior and observable actions measured against quantitative standards; one's competence is judged on the basis of whether or not learned mental and physical tasks can be performed. Current thinking of many is that competency can be taught, and competency can be measured. One current definition is that a competency is having the capacity, skills, and knowledge to function in a particular way; another is that a competency is what a person knows; while still another is that a competency is evidence that one can produce desirable outcomes. For this paper, a concatenation of these definitions will be used; that is, a competency is defined as a personal characteristic or trait, or what one should know or what one should be able to do in order to achieve a desirable objective or outcome. Fundamentally, competencies are not aspects of jobs in electronic information services, but rather characteristics of those who do the jobs best. 4.0 Types of Competencies Needed It is appropriate to put all the competencies for electronic information services into one list. But in this paper they are separated into four groups: personal characteristics, basic skills, general knowledge, and special knowledge. If it is felt that this separation is not necessary, then the separate lists can easily be merged into one, or separated into different groupings. 4.1 Personal Characteristics The first grouping is of personal characteristics. A personal characteristic is a character virtue or trait of a person. I am not a medical doctor, a psychologist, or a learning specialist, so I can only surmise that most character traits are innate within one, or at least taught and nurtured within one at an early age. Probably, some traits can be learned, or at least improved upon, through formal education and training, exposure to others, and experience. There are seven personal characteristics for electronic information services on this list. They are in no particular order of importance. + Page 8 + 1. A Service Attitude A service attitude is important because a sincere and enthusiastic desire to help others in their quest for information is needed if quality services are to be given and if one is to be competent in this type of job. Being user oriented requires one to be unselfish with one's knowledge and talents in the effort to assist others in identifying, locating, receiving, and evaluating information that meets their needs. It is the satisfaction or reward when that has been accomplished successfully. It also is the desire to improve and do better the next time when one fails to satisfy a client. 2. Effective Interpersonal Communication Ability Effective interpersonal communication skills are critical because the ability to listen effectively and to respond to others with clarity, ease, warmth, openness, patience, and empathy is also essential to providing quality services and can mean the difference between being able to achieve successful outcomes when serving clients through electronic information services and failure to do so. This also includes the ability to explain services, policies, and even information easily and coherently to clients and others. 3. Social Sensitivity Social sensitivity is essential when serving different sorts of people. One must, with grace and ease, equally serve people with differing information needs, levels of background and knowledge, communication abilities, cultural characteristics, and mental and physical abilities or disabilities. Each person must be served with equal enthusiasm and with the same assumption of importance as the last. + Page 9 + 4. Flexibility Flexibility is needed to adapt easily to the variability between the information needs of differing clients, between the differing ways of identifying, locating, and transferring information, and between the changing requirements of users. Being able to move easily and quickly from one situation to another is important, whether it be working directly with clients or behind the scenes. 5. Time Consciousness Time consciousness is essential when providing timely services, particularly when a service is heavily used and one is rushed to serve a number of clients rapidly or simultaneously. While one must serve each person equally, one must organize one's time effectively and not spend inordinate amounts of time on some assignments to the detriment of others that might be just as important. 6. Curiosity Curiosity is important because a wondering mind is always essential when seeking information, whether it is for oneself or for clients. Having curiosity enables one to use an electronic information service with the anticipation that something new will be learned, even though you are helping other people rather than yourself. Being curious also enables one to try new approaches to locating information or to investigate new possible sources of information. Having curiosity also makes life much more interesting. 7. A Desire to Perform Well Finally, a desire to perform well is a sign of someone who is unwilling to give poor service or produce shoddy work, and who wants to do their best day in and day out, regardless of the assignment or the conditions. This characteristic is important to quality service and to quality job performance. + Page 10 + Other personal characteristics, such as self confidence, judgement, team participation, and honesty, could easily be placed on the list also. Sufficient examples have been provided to give a sense of what is needed for effective electronic information services. 4.2 Basic Skills The second group of competencies is the basic skills that one needs in order to work effectively in electronic information services. Basic skills involve the use of one's knowledge and abilities effectively and readily to execute or perform specific learned mental and physical tasks with dexterity and coordination. There are four particular basic skills on this list for electronic information services. Again, they are not in any particular order of importance. 1. Information Analysis and Evaluation Skills High on the list of basic skills is capable information analysis and evaluation skills. Skill at determining the precise information needs of library users, summarizing or translating their needs into strategies for identifying and locating needed information, and analyzing and evaluating the retrieved information to determine whether or not it meets the needs of clients is essential if service outcomes are to be acceptable. Without these skills, incorrect information can be retrieved, resulting in dissatisfied clients. 2. Computer Use Skills Also high on the list of basic skills is effortless computer use skills. One should be able to use a computer with confidence and ease, to the extent that clients and others are not able to observe nervousness, timidity, hesitation, or tenseness on your part when you are handling the equipment or using systems. For example, one: A. Can log onto, adjust, log off, and turn off a standard computer terminal, or boot a microcomputer, react correctly to software prompts and messages, and shut down the systems safely and correctly after use. + Page 11 + B. Can use the cursor control keys, the numeric keypad, and other special keys such as the function keys, control, escape, and alternate, with facility. C. Can locate and retrieve files or software in storage. D. Can touch type with a reasonable data entry speed (say, 50 wpm). 3. Network Use and Navigation Skills Also on the list of basic skills are effective network use and navigation skills. For example, one: A. Can enter, move about in, utilize features of, and exit a local area network, BITNET, or the Internet. B. Can handle modem and other communications equipment and communications software and can connect and disconnect from the public- switched network, value-added networks, and other specialized telecommunications links. These skills are essential when communicating electronically with clients, identifying and locating requested information through networks, transferring information around networks and into the library, and delivering information to clients. Most electronic information services of tomorrow, and even many of today, will rely on a blend of information stored in local databases as well as in databases located anywhere around the world. 4. Word Processing Skills Good word processing skills are also essential. One should know at least one standard word processing system, such as WordPerfect. This is fundamental to understanding and using electronic mail systems and in preparing other online communications with clients, staff, and others, and other systems where information is created and/or manipulated. + Page 12 + 4.3 General Knowledge The third category of competencies for electronic information services is general knowledge, which is defined as an understanding of general facts, principles, and other information not specific to providing electronic information services, but nonetheless essential background knowledge needed in order for someone to best perform that job. Remember, however, that competence is not based on the knowledge one has, but on how that knowledge is applied to electronic information services. This general knowledge is not specific to any particular institution, library, or any job. An endless number of competencies can be placed in this category, but twelve of the most important for effective electronic information services will suffice for this paper, again in no particular order of importance. 1. The Nature and Creation of Information On the list of general knowledge is an understanding of the nature and creation of information. This includes the principles of what constitutes information, representation of information for machine acceptance, the various types of information, the sources of information, the various formats in which information can be found, and the process of creating or generating information. This background knowledge can be useful when dealing with any aspect of an electronic information service. 2. Information Storage and Retrieval An understanding of the general principles, techniques, and methods of information storage and retrieval is on the list of general knowledge essential for electronic information services. This includes the process of entering information into files; the various ways that information can be organized in storage; cataloging, indexing, and abstracting of information for storage and retrieval; query formulation and execution; relevance of retrieved information; security of information in storage; and the processes involved in information storage and retrieval. + Page 13 + 3. Information Transfer An understanding of how information is communicated, interchanged, or transferred from one individual to another and from one computer site to another is essential. This includes the forms in which information can be transferred, the various methods for information transfer, the equipment needed for information transfer, and the common communications links that are used in the process. 4. Information Networks Closely related to the previous item is an understanding of the principles of information networks, which are the communications links that are cooperatively organized and maintained between libraries and other organization for the purposes of sharing informational resources and transferring information. An understanding of why people and organizations need to cooperate, why cooperation underlies networks and networking, the benefits and limitations of cooperation, how networks are organized and utilized, and the politics and economics of networks and networking is important to understand some of the mechanisms for electronic information services. 5. Information Systems Knowledge of the basics of information systems within libraries and other organizations is next on the list. This includes an understanding of what systems are essential, their goals or purposes, their essential components or elements, and how they work or don't work. This also includes the application of computers and other technology in support of information systems. + Page 14 + 6. Information Policy An understanding of information policy on international, national, state, and local levels is critical. This includes official, semi-official, or unofficial policies regarding how information is generated, retained, disseminated, and accessed, including who has access to information. This knowledge will be helpful when identifying, locating, and accessing information and when answering clients' questions about the availability of information, how information can be used, and why some information cannot be obtained or obtained easily. 7. Information Copyright and Related Issues Also essential is knowledge about information copyright and related issues. Copyright and related legal rights and privileges of information creators, publishers, performers, and owners are some of the most pressing problems facing us in the electronic information age. Until we can solve some of these problems, electronic information services will be restricted in many different ways, particularly when accessing information in other libraries. This knowledge is useful when dealing with everything from designing to managing these services. 8. Information Privacy and Ethics Knowledge of information privacy and ethics is essential when providing or using electronic information services. This includes the basic laws underlying the rights of individuals to privacy and how that relates to providing electronic information services. The fear that someone is monitoring everything we transmit using electronic information systems is a troublesome issue that can restrict the free flow of information, particularly when dealing with controversial information. + Page 15 + 9. Computing Knowledge of the general principles of computing is next on the list. This would include an understanding how computers work, their capabilities and limitations, and their role in electronic information services. Understanding how computers store, retrieve, process, and communicate information underlies all activities to do with electronic information services, including the use of information networks. 10. Organizational Theory Also on the list is an understanding of the basic principles of organizational theory, because knowledge of how organizations are organized, staffed, and managed gives insight into how they work. Knowing this can help in maneuvering through the intricacies of one's own library and of other institutions when seeking information or working with electronic information services. 11. Information Standards Knowledge of the standards affecting the indexing, transfer, and other aspects of handling information and of the technology and communications facilities that are used is helpful when working on a daily basis with electronic information services. The reasons why electronic information systems are organized or operated lie in the desire to adhere to acceptable standards that make our systems universally compatible, or as compatible as possible. 12. Information Technology Trends Last on the list of general knowledge essential for electronic information services is an understanding of information technology trends. What new ways of storing and transferring electronic information are under development? What emerging technologies possibly might affect the library and its electronic information services in the near or distant future? This knowledge can be helpful in keeping the perspective that electronic information services are constantly evolving, and that change and managing change is a part of electronic information services. + Page 16 + 4.4 Specialized Knowledge The final category of competencies is the specialized knowledge needed for specific electronic information services being offered, which is expected of a specialist in the particular area of librarianship. There are ten competencies on this list, again in no special order. 1. The Clients With Which One Works and Their Information Needs A good working knowledge of the clients with which one works and their specific information needs is important. This includes knowing what types of information clients need, the nature of that information, when they want the information, and how they want it delivered. This also includes their thoughts on what information should be permanently retained locally and what can be obtained at the time of need from other libraries and information centers. 2. The Clients' Discipline(s) and Relevant Literature Knowledge of the clients' discipline or disciplines and its literature is essential. If one does not have formal training in the same discipline as one's clients for an electronic information service, then one certainly must have a good working knowledge of the field and its literature, to give one credibility when working with the clients. Someone without the proper credentials might not be readily accepted by clients. 3. The Specific Electronic Information Service Being Offered One should have a thorough understanding of the specific electronic information service being offered. One must understand the purpose or function of the service, its goals and objectives, the nature and scope of information in its database, how the information is organized, how the information is retrieved, how the service is organized and managed, how the results can be delivered, the procedures and policies for its use, and a little about its history. This also might include knowledge of the licensing agreement for the service and the economics of its purchase or licensing and other associated costs. + Page 17 + 4. Use of the Specific Electronic Information Service With Which One Works Closely related to the previous special competency is a facility in using the specific electronic information service with which one works. One must be able to use the service with ease, to explain its use to others, and to assist others in its use. This is at the heart of special knowledge. Clients will forgive you for not knowing their discipline, if only you can obtain information for them or help them in obtaining information. 5. Other Electronic Information Services That Supplement or Complement the One Being Offered Knowledge of other electronic information services that supplement or complement the one being offered also can be very helpful, since it probably is not typical for any one electronic service to yield all the information clients want in every case. 6. What Resources Are Available Locally One must know what information resources are available locally when using an electronic information service. All or most of the information retrieved for clients from an electronic information service might be deliverable from in-house or external computer files. But probably for many years to come, the demand for information available only in traditional print format will continue. That demand will gradually diminish until it reaches zero or comes close to zero at some unknown future point in time. In the meantime, one must still know what resources are available locally. 7. Where and How to Obtain Resources Not Available Locally But still, one must know where and how to obtain resources not available locally. While there are software systems that assist in locating information in electronic databases around the world, use of these systems must always be supplemented with personal knowledge of additional sources or acquaintance with people who know where information can be located. + Page 18 + 8. Document Delivery Options Knowing local document delivery options is also important. One must know what options are available to clients, how they work, how to use them, and their costs. 9. Evaluation of Information Received From an Electronic Information Service Being Offered Knowing how to evaluate information received from an electronic information service being offered is becoming critical. Many clients are overwhelmed by the vast amount of information that an electronic information service can yield, and want a librarian to filter through it and pick out the important from the peripheral. The quality of service received, in the eyes of many clients, might be how well the librarian selected the information that is given them. 10. Evaluation of the Satisfaction of Clients With an Electronic Information Service The final type of special knowledge is how to evaluate the satisfaction of clients with an electronic information service. This is, of course, related to the previous competency. Satisfaction can be evaluated through use of formal and informal interviews, questionnaires, and surveys. 5.0 How Competencies Are Acquired and Maintained Having a degree from the most prestigious library school in the country does not necessarily or automatically ensure competency for electronic information services. The necessary competencies most likely will be acquired from a combination of sources, only one of which will be library school. Responsibility for acquiring and maintaining competency for work in or with electronic information services has to be a shared one. + Page 19 + 5.1 Formal Education and Training Programs First, competency for electronic information services can be obtained through formal education and training programs. Completion of a formal education and/or training program leading to a certificate or degree is one way of initially acquiring basic skills, general knowledge, and some specialized knowledge. This could include high school, technical school, community college, and senior college or university degree programs. Sometimes, these same institutions offer refresher courses or programs designed to upgrade skills and knowledge once a certificate or degree is earned. Information is usually presented in an organized and succinct manner designed to facilitate learning; the opportunity to interact within a group of peers is provided; and evaluation of knowledge gained is evaluated through testing. It is usually the responsibility of the individual to want to gain competency using this approach and to initiate and complete the process. However, a library can give unpaid leaves of absences for its employees to complete a formal program on a full-time basis and/or allow employees opportunities to set flexible work schedules in order to attend classes. Of course, many employees attend classes at night and on weekends in order to complete a formal education or training program, either for an initial professional degree or to upgrade or gain new skills and knowledge. 5.2 On-The-Job Training All skills and knowledge learned through formal education and training programs must be reinforced and enhanced through on-the- job-training. Also, most of the specialized skills for electronic information services will most likely be learned on the job, and one's initial orientation and subsequent on-the-job training before one begins work with a service is one of the primary ways competencies are gained. It is the responsibility of the library to provide initial on-the-job training for electronic information services and follow-up training when necessary. + Page 20 + 5.3 Self Education Self education when acquiring and maintaining competencies for electronic information services should not be overlooked. By studying textbooks, training and reference manuals, procedure and policy manuals, and other documentation, one can learn the basics of an electronic service. This must be followed up with, or accompanied by, other methods such as experience if it is to be effective. 5.4 Apprenticeship Coupled with on-the-job training and self education is apprenticeship with a colleague or a mentor who is assigned, or assumes, responsibility for working with someone new to an electronic information service. This person can provide the initial and follow-up training, then enable one to master a job under his or her tutelage. The person can correct one's mistakes, provide a model for good work habits and proper techniques, and reinforce the learning experience. This technique has been long neglected in this country, but it still is a viable way of learning, even in this electronic age. There can be a formal apprenticeship program that is official policy of a library, or it can be completely voluntary on the part of the mentor and the apprentice. 5.5 Experience Experience is one of the best teachers when learning or acquiring competency for electronic information services, based upon one or more of the other approaches just mentioned. One will never be truly competent in an electronic information service until this experience is gained. Through experience, one gains self confidence, agility, and speed and begins to add to one's effectiveness in a job. + Page 21 + 5.6 Continuing Education Events Many skills and some knowledge learned through formal programs tend to become rapidly obsolete when dealing with electronic information services. Continuing education provides one of the best ways of upgrading skills and knowledge as well as of keeping abreast of trends and issues in the field. Continuing education events include workshops, seminars, short courses, demonstrations, and other presentations where one can learn new skills and knowledge and upgrade or enhance old skills and knowledge. Continuing education is a joint responsibility of the library and the individual. The library must either design and provide the events, or provide opportunities to its employees to attend events, either at full or partial library expense. 6.0 Conclusion In conclusion, anyone who expects to manage, use, or provide services from an electronic information service effectively must have a number of competencies, including some personal characteristics, some specialized basic skills, general knowledge that provides a base for the services, and some very specialized knowledge directly related to services that are offered. These competencies will be acquired in a variety of ways, and most of them must be updated continually if one is to remain an effective employee. Responsibility for acquiring and maintaining the competencies in tip-top shape will be a shared responsibility between the individual, the library in which he or she works, and multiple external organizations such as professional societies and associations, consortia, vendors, and others. Those of you who neglect the maintenance of your competencies, or acquiring them in the first place, will find yourself being less effective on the job. Notes 1. This paper was presented at the Ninth Texas Conference on Library Automation, Houston, Texas, 2 April 1993. Bibliography 1. Goleman, Daniel. "The New Competency Tests: Matching the Right People to the Right Jobs." Psychology Today 15 (January 1981): 35-46. 2. Pottinger, Paul S., and Joan Goldsmith, eds. Defining and Measuring Competence. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1979. + Page 22 + About the Author John Corbin, Professor, School of Library and Information Sciences, University of North Texas, Box 13796, Denton, TX 76203. Internet: CORBIN@LIS.UNT.EDU. ----------------------------------------------------------------- The Public-Access Computer Systems Review is an electronic journal that is distributed on BITNET, Internet, and other computer networks. There is no subscription fee. To subscribe, send an e-mail message to LISTSERV@UHUPVM1 (BITNET) or LISTSERV@UHUPVM1.UH.EDU (Internet) that says: SUBSCRIBE PACS-P First Name Last Name. PACS-P subscribers also receive three electronic newsletters: Current Cites, LITA Newsletter, and Public-Access Computer Systems News. This article is Copyright (C) 1993 by John Corbin. All Rights Reserved. The Public-Access Computer Systems Review is Copyright (C) 1993 by the University Libraries, University of Houston. All Rights Reserved. Copying is permitted for noncommercial use by academic computer centers, computer conferences, individual scholars, and libraries. Libraries are authorized to add the journal to their collection, in electronic or printed form, at no charge. This message must appear on all copied material. All commercial use requires permission. ----------------------------------------------------------------- + Page 32 + ----------------------------------------------------------------- Public-Access Provocations: An Informal Column ----------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------- Crawford, Walt. "Reality Checks for Catalog Design." The Public-Access Computer Systems Review 4, no. 6 (1993): 32-35. To retrieve this file, send the following e-mail message to LISTSERV@UHUPVM1 or LISTSERV@UHUPVM1.UH.EDU: GET CRAWFORD PRV4N6 F=MAIL. ----------------------------------------------------------------- You're probably not an online catalog designer--but, given the flexibility of today's and tomorrow's systems, you might influence the design of an online catalog now or in the future. If that's true, here's a suggested change in your work life once such a design is in use: At least once a month, spend at least an hour or two studying current transaction logs for the catalog--preferably, reviewing whole sessions from beginning to end. I'd almost say that this practice should be required for any catalog or user interface designer: periodically examine how real users actually use the system. Library researchers call it Transaction Log Analysis (TLA); I call it a reality check for your design theories. Session Analysis, Not Statistical Analysis Most TLA work is statistical and can be quite useful (although probably not as useful as its proponents suggest). If the transaction logs and statistical analyses are well designed, the reports will show which indexes are most heavily used, which wonderful special features aren't used much at all, and whether anyone asks for help. All useful information, to be sure, but not the same as end-to-end session analysis. + Page 33 + Session analysis shows you how users actually cope with the system's design. Users make mistakes in every system (even menu-driven ones that mask the errors). Does the system's feedback instruct the user so that the next command is reasonable--and does the user retain that information for the next sequence? Do most users really do a large number of searches using the same index, or are they likely to follow a strategy through several different indexes? When do users appear to become frustrated--and why? Are there distinct differences between quick-search users and research users (and can you tell the difference)? Can someone start a session, complete a search, display the results, and leave in two minutes--and is that a reasonable goal for your system? If you have an open mind, and if the catalog's basic design is flexible, session analysis can yield improvements in the design. If you see common traps, you may see ways to avoid them, or at least to offer specific help. It's enormously satisfying to make design changes (or just changes in help text) based on session analysis, then see particular sources of error disappear in later sessions. The Awful Truth Session analysis can be depressing, and probably will be at times, no matter how good the design is. You'll probably find that some of the users (perhaps 2-5%) are incorrigible: they won't read what's on the screen, they won't pay attention to any help, and they will keep repeating the same errors no matter what you do. Some repetitive errors call out for system changes--but some sessions can only be attributed to abusive users. Session analysis shows the truth of a system: how people actually work with it. It isn't always pretty, and you can find yourself wanting to tell the phantom user the one tip that would cut through their confusion--but then, you may find that the system is already showing them that tip, and they simply ignore it. That, incidentally, is one of the problems with remote session analysis by outside researchers: if you don't know how the system operates, you may not be able to do a valid analysis. + Page 34 + Not Just Spouting Off Some previous Public-Access Provocations may have the appearance of theoretical pronouncements from someone not actually doing this stuff. Not this time. I've been doing exactly what I recommend since late August 1993, and intend to continue. I served as principal designer for Eureka, RLG's patron-oriented search service; we currently log 25% of sessions (fully maintaining user anonymity); and each week we print out those anonymous logs. I've been going through those logs each week to categorize erroneous commands (a process that is leading to changes in the design) and doing full session analysis at least once a month. Admittedly, Eureka is a functionally rich design, making session analysis both more difficult and more useful--but the lessons I'm learning appear to be lessons almost any online system could teach. Yes, the process can be irritating and frustrating, but it's also extremely enlightening. I grade each session based on my sense of what the user was trying to do--and I'm a tough grader: if they wind up frustrated, I assume it's the system's fault, even if it's clear that they had no interest in using the system correctly. Library researchers look at TLA as something that should lead to published results. Will I be publishing the results of this ongoing session analysis or the underlying statistical analysis? Possibly, eventually, but that's not the purpose. The purpose, and the best use of session analysis, is much more direct: to see how these reality checks can lead to better system design. And, to be sure, to keep system designers humble. Which we all richly deserve to be. More About TLA Library Hi Tech 11, no. 2 (1993) contains a special theme section on transaction log analysis: 7 articles in 70 pages. I disagree with a significant amount of what's said, but the section does provide a good introduction to the field. + Page 35 + About the Author Walt Crawford, The Research Libraries Group, Inc., 1200 Villa Street, Mountain View CA 94041-1100. Internet: BR.WCC@RLG.STANFORD.EDU. ----------------------------------------------------------------- The Public-Access Computer Systems Review is an electronic journal that is distributed on BITNET, Internet, and other computer networks. There is no subscription fee. To subscribe, send an e-mail message to LISTSERV@UHUPVM1 (BITNET) or LISTSERV@UHUPVM1.UH.EDU (Internet) that says: SUBSCRIBE PACS-P First Name Last Name. PACS-P subscribers also receive three electronic newsletters: Current Cites, LITA Newsletter, and Public-Access Computer Systems News. This article is Copyright (C) 1993 by Walt Crawford. All Rights Reserved. The Public-Access Computer Systems Review is Copyright (C) 1993 by the University Libraries, University of Houston. All Rights Reserved. Copying is permitted for noncommercial use by academic computer centers, computer conferences, individual scholars, and libraries. Libraries are authorized to add the journal to their collection, in electronic or printed form, at no charge. This message must appear on all copied material. All commercial use requires permission. ----------------------------------------------------------------- + Page 23 + ----------------------------------------------------------------- Goodyear, Mary Lou. "Information Policy for Electronic Information Resources." The Public-Access Computer Systems Review 4, no. 6 (1993): 23-31. To retrieve this file, send the following e-mail message to LISTSERV@UHUPVM1 or LISTSERV@UHUPVM1.UH.EDU: GET GOODYEAR PRV4N6 F=MAIL. ----------------------------------------------------------------- 1.0 Introduction The making of public policy has often been compared to the making of sausage. [1] It may turn out being very good, but you don't want to watch the process. Of all our current public policy areas, information policy is probably the most confusing and complex. All levels of government participate in the regulation of access to information of all types. The array of issues and the complexity of laws makes this area one of the most difficult to study. Information is a basic resource for all human beings, and it is as important to us as food, good air, and rest. It is the basis for all our decisions. Information is needed for personal decisions as minor as when to go to bed to as significant as buying a house. Information is also the basis for running the organizations in which we work. Policies concerning information, both governmental and private, have the potential to have a profound effect on society. It is "intelligence" information which enables President Clinton to make decisions concerning foreign policy; it is social information which allows the federal government to make decisions concerning education programs; and it is information about all aspects of health care that is consuming Hillary Rodham Clinton and congressional policy makers. Governmental policies can provide wide access to information or restrict access. All public policy is made on the basis of the information available at the time of the decision. Therefore, information policy provides the basis, or the support, for all other public policy. The availability of information has made the crucial difference in many public policy decisions. Policies on the creation, collection, storage, use, and dissemination of information form the basis of information policy. It is this attribute, the all encompassing nature of information, that makes it so difficult and complex. The formation of information policy is one of the most important aspects of public policy today. + Page 24 + 2.0 Changes in the Information Environment Information is the basis for communication, both personal and scholarly. Therefore, policies governing access to information can have dramatic affects on the scholarly communication process. For example, governmental policies concerning classified information have partially determined what topics military historians can choose to explore. In truth, access to information determines many choices that scholars make concerning what to study. If access is not provided, study cannot proceed. As we move to the use of electronic information, the relationship between information, the producer, and the consumer is changing. Spender proposes that each information medium has its own social structure. [2] As communication has moved from verbal to print to electronic the relationships between writer and reader and between lay citizen and scholar have changed. When the means of communication were strictly oral, the exchange of information required direct contact. Those who were the repositories of information were the authorities. They preserved the knowledge base for society and chose to whom knowledge was communicated. These authorities were the authors and users of information, so they held great power in society. When writing and printing came into common use, this power relationship changed. Through the printed page, information could be exchanged without direct contact between people. Paper proved to be both durable and transportable. Printing gave information to the masses, allowing education to become widespread. However, authoring essentially remained with scholars and professionals. Printing was, and still is, an expensive investment. Access was primarily given to those with appropriate education and credentials--giving them the authority to communicate information. With the advent of electronic information, the relationship between the author and the user of information is changing further. Electronic information can, and does, move anywhere at anytime. A mere change in the way information is stored, from paper to electronic, has produced a vastly significant change-- geography is no longer important. The place where a piece of information is stored has become less relevant. + Page 25 + Information used to be stored on printed pieces of paper. Pieces of paper can only be at one place at one time--essentially controlling access to that information. Physical access was required for intellectual access; in order to read the information it had to be physically in your hand. Today, information stored in electronic form can be easily accessed from thousands of miles away. Exact copies can be made without the owner of the original losing his or her copy or even knowing it has been shared with another person. This reality has made the movement of information very difficult to control. Access to information has vastly increased for those who know how to gain this access. The ability to control access to information, for any reason, is challenged in a way without precedent in our history. This ease of access has changed the relationship between author and user. It is much more difficult for the author to restrict access. Control of information is shifting from the author to the user. In addition, it is also easier to become an author. Many electronic networks provide free access to information, both as a user and an author, making it easy for authors to add their thoughts to the knowledge base. The increased availability of information in electronic formats has substantially decreased control over information as a whole. The laws that form the basis of our information policy have not kept pace with this vast technological change. Setting public policy in this area poses a daunting challenge, even for information professionals. There currently exists a vast complex of laws, regulations, directives, statements, policies and judicial interpretations concerning information. Given this complexity, how does an information professional balance all the competing needs? How can we organize our thinking about information policy? 3.0 A Framework for Information Policy Given the complexity of information policy, a system to organize our thinking would be a valuable asset. Overman and Cahill [3] have provided a framework which can be used to study information policy issues. This paper will cover three of the information policy values defined by Overman and Cahill. These three values are: (1) access--the ability to gain access to records held by governments or private companies; (2) privacy--an individual's right to hold information about him/herself secure; and (3) intellectual property--the ownership of information. These three values comprise the major components for the current information policy debate. + Page 26 + 3.1 Access There is nothing more basic to the relationship between government and citizens than the right of access to information. The free flow of information is essential to the citizenry's ability to participate in democratic government. This principle has been supported since the beginning of our country. [4] It has been generally agreed that information access is a citizen entitlement, particularly in this information age. [5] As a public policy concept, access has been widely accepted. At the federal level, access policies have been put in place through broad legislation, such as the Freedom of Information Act, and by more detailed legislation relating to specific types of federal records. At the state level, open records laws exist that guarantee access to records kept by state and local jurisdictions. Two states have an access guarantee in their constitutions, and all states and the District of Columbia have open records laws. [6] Librarians stand at the focal point for support of the free flow of information; access is a fundamental value for the profession. However, there are other information policy considerations which must be balanced with open and free access. One of those considerations is the need for government to function effectively. Experience has taught us that openness within a democratic system does not always bring effective decision making. Therefore, most access laws limit disclosure by providing for exceptions to open records and meetings. At both levels of government, information can be withheld for reasons of effective government. The most common example on the federal level is limiting access for reasons of national security. At the state level, legislatures have attempted to balance access values with the need for secrecy in the effective functioning of government. Within open meetings laws, executive sessions can be authorized when premature publicity of the topic would be detrimental to the interest of the public at large by revealing information to individuals who might profit at the public's expense. For example, real estate transactions are often done in executive session so as to maximize the public's profit from public lands. Most access laws also recognize the need for limited access due to personal privacy, the topic of the next section. + Page 27 + 3.2 Privacy Privacy, the right of an individual to hold personal information private, is also thought to be grounded in democratic governance. Privacy can be defined as an integral part of freedom; an important aspect of the ability to secure autonomy. This "right" is strongly supported within the Constitution. [7] Privacy has become an increasingly important concept in the information policy area. As access values have been implemented into law, the concern for privacy has grown. At the federal level, there is strong court-interpreted support for a "right of privacy." The most comprehensive privacy legislation at the federal level is the Privacy Act of 1974. There is also federal legislation dealing with specific types of records, such as financial records in banks and other financial institutions. At the state level, there is stronger legislative support of privacy. Eleven states have a constitutional provision guaranteeing privacy, and six states have a statutory law protecting privacy. [8] Privacy is also recognized in open meetings and open records legislation. The information policy values of access and privacy are both important to democratic governance. The balance struck between these values is one of the most difficult aspects of current information policy. The transition to electronic information has made policy making in this area even more important. As noted above, electronic information is more difficult to control. The tilt of legislation at both the federal and state level has been in favor of access, leaving privacy issues more often to court interpretation. [9] The lack of strong legislative guarantees, combined with the difficulty of enforcement has created an information policy environment where privacy is far from guaranteed. [10] Threats to privacy have become a concern for the general public. In a recent Harris poll, more than two- thirds of the public agreed that computers are a threat to personal privacy. [11] Widespread privacy violations have been reported on a consistent basis, most recently in a well documented book by Jeffrey Rothfeder. [12] He concludes that the electronic information kept by government and private business are readily available. If privacy is to be guaranteed, it is clear that information policy must change. Part of that change must be clearer definition of who owns and controls pieces of information. + Page 28 + 3.3 Intellectual Property Ownership of information, or intellectual property, is an increasingly important aspect of information policy. The government has a substantial interest in protecting free expression by guaranteeing that citizens can use ideas for their own benefit and the benefit of others. At the same time, government has an interest in guaranteeing the people's welfare by encouraging intellectual advancement that benefits society. In a capitalistic economy, this advancement is accomplished by allowing the ownership of expression. Limiting access to information by providing for ownership fulfills this public policy need. Most intellectual property laws exist at the federal level. Copyright law protects the expression of ideas in any form, such as literary, musical, dramatic, graphic, and ornamental works; however, ideas that have not yet found expression are excluded. In essence, the idea itself is not protected, but the expression of the idea is. Inventions which perform some useful function are protected through federal patent law. Abstract ideas are not patentable; a patent requires actual application. Trade secret law, which exists at the state level, is the third component of intellectual property law. These laws protect information that has independent economic value from being generally known and from benefiting anyone other than the originator. Thirty-nine states have trade secret laws. [13] All three components of intellectual property law combine to comprise a fairly strong system of protection. However, electronic information poses a significant challenge to the current law. Software programs fall in between copyright and patent protection. They are expressions of ideas, and yet hold great utility. Legislators have not yet been able to revise current law to adequately protect such intellectual property. The courts have had a difficult time sorting out the issues of ownership given the inadequate law. This situation has left software producers in a difficult position. With the rapid change in technology, this type of intellectual property tends to have a short life span. Many software producers are moving toward trade secret law to ensure protection of their electronic intellectual property, which appears to afford them better protection in the short term. + Page 29 + 4.0 Conclusion This brief outline provides a basic framework for issues concerning information policy. These issues are critical to the future of the information professions as well as to the daily functioning of all citizens. The choices we make affect governance, personal privacy, and the scholarly communication process. Given the complexity of these issues, it is difficult to see how one might choose between the options. Given the complexity of information policy, a beginning might be the statement of basic principles. There are three statements of principles that are useful tools in deciding information policy issues. The most comprehensive set of principles dealing with personal information was issued by the Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development. [14] These principles provide limits on the collection of personal data as well as its use. They also discuss the rights of an individual to challenge the accuracy of collected data. While these principles have been used as a model for the federal privacy act and legislation at the state level, the United States is far from guaranteeing privacy as proposed by these principles. The National Commission on Libraries and Information Science has approved a set of principles which "reaffirms that the information policies of the U.S. government are based on the freedoms guaranteed by the Constitution, and on the recognition of public information as a national resource to be developed and preserved in the public interest." [15] These principles discuss access rights, privacy issues, accuracy of information, and cost issues. These principles are an excellent beginning toward forming a more comprehensive set of access principles. EDUCOM has issued a Bill of Rights which defines information policy principles specifically related to electronic information. [16] These principles cover individual and institutional rights and responsibilities dealing with access, privacy, and ownership issues. Also included are freedom of speech issues and issues surrounding learning to use electronic resources. Cost factors are also included as an issue for institutions to consider. These principles provide a basis on which an individual institution or library could write an information policy. Ultimately, it is responsible government and responsible citizens who must decide the right use of information and the right balance between access, privacy, and ownership. The determination of information policy will affect all information institutions and professionals in coming years. The decisions made are likely to affect the most democratic of these institutions--the library. It is vitally important for information professionals to become well informed and active in the formation of information policy. + Page 30 + Notes 1. This paper was presented at the Ninth Texas Conference on Library Automation, Houston, Texas, 3 April 1993. 2. Dale Spender, "Electronic Scholarship: Perform or Perish?" in Woman, Information Technology, and Scholarship, eds. H. Jeanie Taylor, Cheris Kramarae, and Maureen Ebben (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois, 1993), 15-19. 3. E. Samuel Overman and Anthony G. Cahill, "Information Policy: A Study of Values in the Policy Process," Policy Studies Review 9, no. 4 (1990): 803-818. 4. James Madison, "Letter to W. T. Barry, 4 August 1822," in The Writings of James Madison, ed. Gaillard Hunt (New York: Putnam, 1910), 142-144. 5. Dennis J. Reynolds, "The Bill of Rights and Beyond: Citizen Entitlement and Information Access in an Electronic Age," in Rights and Access to Electronic Information, ed. Dennis J. Reynolds (Chicago: Library and Information Technology Association, 1992), 3-31. 6. Mary Lou Goodyear, "Information and Democracy: A Study of the Relationship Between State Information Policies and Democratic Governance" (Ph.D. diss., University of Colorado, Denver, 1993). 7. Ruth Gavison, "Privacy and the Limits of the Law," in Philosophical Dimensions of Privacy: An Anthology, ed. Ferdinand David Schoeman (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 346- 402. 8. Mary Lou Goodyear, "Information and Democracy: A Study of the Relationship Between State Information Policies and Democratic Governance." 9. Ibid. 10. Rita Kidd, "Public Information Gatekeepers," Government Technology 6, no. 4 (1993): 20. 11. Rosita Thomas, "Privacy in the Age of Computers," CRS Review 11, no. 1 (1990): 8. 12. Jeffrey Rothfeder, Privacy For Sale: How Computerization Has Made Everyone's Private Life an Open Secret (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992). + Page 31 + 13. Mary Lou Goodyear, "Information and Democracy: A Study of the Relationship Between State Information Policies and Democratic Governance." 14. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, Guidelines on the Protection of Privacy and Transborder Flows of Personal Data (Paris: OECD, 1981). 15. National Commission on Libraries and Information Science, "Principles of Public Information," in Citizen Rights and Access to Electronic Information, ed. Dennis J. Reynolds. (Chicago: Library and Information Technology Association, 1992), 175. 16. Frank Connolly and Sally Webster, "Bill of Rights and Responsibilities for Electronic Learners," EDUCOM Review 28, no. 3 (1993): 24-27. About the Author Mary Lou Goodyear, Interim Associate Director, Sterling C. Evans Library, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-5000. ----------------------------------------------------------------- The Public-Access Computer Systems Review is an electronic journal that is distributed on BITNET, Internet, and other computer networks. There is no subscription fee. To subscribe, send an e-mail message to LISTSERV@UHUPVM1 (BITNET) or LISTSERV@UHUPVM1.UH.EDU (Internet) that says: SUBSCRIBE PACS-P First Name Last Name. PACS-P subscribers also receive three electronic newsletters: Current Cites, LITA Newsletter, and Public-Access Computer Systems News. This article is Copyright (C) 1993 by Mary Lou Goodyear. Rights Reserved. The Public-Access Computer Systems Review is Copyright (C) 1993 by the University Libraries, University of Houston. All Rights Reserved. Copying is permitted for noncommercial use by academic computer centers, computer conferences, individual scholars, and libraries. Libraries are authorized to add the journal to their collection, in electronic or printed form, at no charge. This message must appear on all copied material. All commercial use requires permission. -----------------------------------------------------------------